あなたは今、目の前にある対象をどのように知覚していると思いますか？
当為
多くの哲学者がこの「知覚」について考えてきました。
今回は「知覚」について、主知主義、ゲシュタルト学派、カントの視点からわかりやすく説明します。
知覚と感覚
「知覚」と聞いても、あまりピンとこない方も多いかもしれません。
「感覚」とどう違うの？と思う方もいるでしょう。
ここではまず、知覚と感覚の意味について説明します。
※ なお意味は学問によっても若干異なります。
「知覚」とは、「これは何？」の答えになりうるものです。
例えば目の前に立方体があったとして、「立方体」と名詞的に表現されるのが知覚です。
一方「感覚」は、「どんな？」の答えになりうるもの。
同じように例えば目の前に立方体があったとして、「固い」「白い」「美しい」と形容詞的に表現されるのが感覚です。
当為
表現しきれない「感覚」
例えば、２人の人が同じ景色を見て、双方ともに「美しい」と表現したとします。
「美しい」という言葉は同じですが、しかしどのように美しいのかはわかりません。
そう、「美しい」といった言葉は便宜上の目印に過ぎないのです。
「感覚」には質があり、言葉への置き換えが難しいのです。
さて知覚と感覚についてお話ししたところで、次は知覚について掘り下げていきましょう。
知覚についての２つの立場
哲学における知覚の立場に、主知主義的な立場とそれに批判的な立場（ゲシュタルト学派）があります。
主知主義的な立場
主知主義的な立場とは、知性を重視する立場のこと。
これは哲学史上では古くからある立場で、あのソクラテスも「悪は無知によって生じる」と考えたことからこの立場であるとされています。
主知主義的において知覚とは、感覚を知性でまとめることによってつくりだされるもの。
人間が対象を見るときは、その一部しか見えていないため、得られる情報も一部です。
その情報の足りない部分を知性が補い、且つ外から得られた様々な感覚をまとめることで、知覚をつくりだしていると考えるのです。
この場合、感覚と知覚には確かな隔たりがあります。
『幸福論』で有名なフランスの哲学者、アランはこう考えました。
「対象は思考されるのであって感じられるのではない。」
彼はサイコロの話を用いて説明します。
サイコロが６つの正方形によってできているのを、私たちは知っています。
しかし、私たちは６つの面を同時に見ることはできません。
また、ある時に私たちが眺めるすべての角は決してどれもが直角ではありません。
私たちが眺める場所によって、サイコロの外観はすべて異なっています。
明らかにそのサイコロのすべての角が直角であるように眺められる場所はありません。
しかしこれらすべての外観は、私たちが決して見ることのできない正六面体の観念がなければ一体何なのでしょうか、と。
つまり、私たちが見ることのできないサイコロの形を知覚できるのは、知性によって感覚と足りない情報をまとめて知覚を形成しているからということです。
他に主知主義的と言われているのは、近代哲学の父・デカルトです。
知らないものの判断について彼は、私たちが何かを知らないのは、備わっていることを知らないだけと考えました。
つまり、すべては生まれつき備わっており、見たことがなくても思考を駆使することで導き出せるということ。
これに対し、イギリスの哲学者・ロックは、生まれつき備わっているものなどない、見たことがなければわからないと批判。
つまり、何事も学習や経験によるという意見です。
当為
主知主義に批判的な立場（ゲシュタルト学派）
主知主義的な立場では、感覚が知性によってまとめられることで知覚がつくられるとしましたが、主知主義に批判的な立場ではそもそも知覚と感覚は区別されません。
知覚とは、知覚している主体が情報を選別しながらまとまった形で対象を捉えていると考えました。
この立場をとるのは、ゲシュタルト学派などが挙げられます。
ゲシュタルト学派とは、ドイツの心理学者ヴェルトハイマーらが中心の心理学の一学派。
哲学の分野は非常に多岐に渡るので、時に他学問を取りいれて考えることがあります。特に心理学はフロイトやユングなど哲学分野においてもよく言及されます。
ゲシュタルトと聞くと、「ゲシュタルト崩壊」という言葉を思い浮かべる方もいるかもしれませんが、まさにそのゲシュタルトです。
ゲシュタルト（Gestalt）はドイツ語で「形」のこと。
ゲシュタルト学派は、知覚は一挙に形あるものとして与えられると考えました。
例えば、漢字の知覚はまさにゲシュタルト的であると言えます。
複数の部分を一つのまとまりとして知覚しているからです。
対象を部分ではなく、全体として捉えるということがわかります。
このようなゲシュタルト学派の考える知覚のしかたは「直観」です。
「直観」とは精神（理性や知性）が直にものごとを把握すること。
捕捉しますが、「直感」ではありません。それはただの勘です。
思考の結果や感覚の集約ではなく、対象をそのまま捉えることが直観。
これらゲシュタルト学派の考え方は、哲学の分野にも影響を与えました。
例えば、ウィトゲンシュタインやメルロ＝ポンティなどが挙げられます。
カントにおける知覚
知覚といえば外せないのが、カント。
彼は、知覚は空間があるから可能になると考えました。
例えば、右手と左手の例。
どちらも手であるということは同じですが、区別されます。
それは、それぞれの手が所有する空間が異なるからであると考えたのです。
つまり、ものが占める空間があるからこそ、知覚として成り立つということ。
このようにカントはただ単にものだけを捉えるのではなく、そのものが置かれている空間も捉えている、むしろ空間がないと捉えられないとしました。
知覚においてそれまでの哲学とは異なる理論を構築したカント。
その特徴は、客観的な性質（空間）と主観的な性質（個々人の知覚）を合わせたことにあります。
つまり、同一の条件のもとに、個別の知覚がなされるということです。
さて、ここで１つ疑問がうかぶかもしれません。
さきほど「同一の条件（空間）のもとに、個別の知覚がなされる」としましたが、空間の違いは生じないのか？ということです。
まずものがなければ、違いは生じません。
そしてものがあれば、それらは別々の空間にあると考えます。
カントに言わせれば、そのような空間の違いも共通設定のうち。
当為
つまり、カントにおいて知覚がものを捉えるとは、ものがある（違いのある）空間を合わせて知覚すること。
カント以前は、空間が何であるかが理解されていませんでした。
そのため、「ものがなくなると空間もなくなる」といった客観に偏った意見や、「対象があるように見えるが、私たちの知覚の中にしかない」といった主観に偏った意見が挙げられていました。
ここで再びカントの斬新さが顕著になるでしょう。
彼は、空間の客観性を認めつつ、知覚（主観）と関連づけたのです。
まとめ
＜知覚と感覚＞
→ 感覚には質があり、表現しきれない。
＜主知主義的な立場＞
＜主知主義に批判的な立場（ゲシュタルト学派）＞
＜カントにおける知覚＞
最後に
私たちが普段当たり前のように行っている知覚。
一歩立ち止まって、それがどのように行われているのか考えてみませんか。
当為
最後まで閲覧して頂きありがとうございました。
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